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SOMERVILLE, RICHARD

Distinguished Professor Emeritus

Research Professor

Degrees:

• B.S., Pennsylvania State University
• Ph.D., New York University

Research Interests:

• Geophysical fluid dynamics
• Thermal convection
• Computational methods
• Predictability
• Atmospheric modeling
• Numerical weather prediction
• Radiative transfer
• Cloud physics
• Climate

Honors and Awards:

• Received Distinguished Alumni Award, Pennsylvania State University, 2011
• Awarded Charles L. Hosler Alumni Scholar Medal, Pennsylvania State University, 2009
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Fourth Assessment Report, Coordinating Lead Author, 2007
• Appointed Lee Kuan Yew Distinguished Visitor, Singapore, 2007
• Appointed Distinguished Professor, University of California, San Diego, 2004
• Appointed Distinguished Lecturer, Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society, 2002-2003
• Elected Fellow, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993
• Outstanding Contributions to Science Education - University Level, from the San Diego Science Educator’s Association, 1991
• Elected Fellow, American Meteorological Society, Fellow, 1987
• American Meteorological Society, Walter Orr Roberts Lectureship in Interdisciplinary Sciences “for significant contributions to the understanding and discussion of global environmental change derived from multidisciplinary research activities.” 1999
• American Meteorological Society, Louis J. Battan Author's Award for "for The Forgiving Air, an engaging and readable book filled with scientific insight and historical perspective about some of the most complex environmental problems we face today." 2000
• Listed in Who's Who in America and similar biographical references in all recent editions

Mentoring:

• Kooperman, Gabe (Graduate; 2008-)
• Pritchard, Mike (Graduate; 2007-2011)
• Shell, Karen (Graduate; 1998-2004)
• Berque, Joannes (Graduate; 1997-2004)
• Lane-Veron, Dana (Graduate; 1995-2000)

Kooperman, G. J., M. S. Pritchard, S. J. Ghan, M. Wang, R. C. J. Somerville, and L. M. Russell, 2012: Constraining the influence of natural variability to improve estimates of global aerosol indirect effects in a nudged version of the Community Atmosphere Model 5, Journal of Geophysical Research, 117, D23204, doi:10.1029/2012JD018588.

Somerville, R. C. J., 2012: Science, politics and public perceptions of climate change. In: Climate Change: Inferences from Paleoclimate and Regional Aspects. [Berger, A., F. Mesinger and D. Sijacki (eds.)]. Springer, Berlin and Heidelberg, Germany, pp. 3-17.

Somerville, R. C. J., and S. J. Hassol, 2011: Communicating the science of climate change. Physics Today, 64, 10, 48-53.

Berque, J., D. Lubin and R. C. J. Somerville, 2011: Transect method for Antarctic cloud property retrieval using AVHRR data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 32, 2887-2903.

Pritchard, M. S., M. W. Moncrieff, and R. C. J. Somerville, 2011: Orogenic propagating precipitation systems over the US in a global climate model with embedded explicit convection. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, doi:10.1175/2011JAS3699.1

Somerville, R. C. J., 2011: How much should the public know about climate science? Climatic Change, 104, 509-514. doi:10.1007/s10584-010-9938-y.

Donner, L. W. Schubert and R. Somerville, (eds.), 2011: The Development of Atmospheric General Circulation Models: Complexity, Synthesis and Computation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Somerville, R. C. J., 2011: The co-evolution of climate models and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. In: The Development of Atmospheric General Circulation Models: Complexity, Synthesis and Computation. [Donner, L. W. Schubert and R. Somerville, (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 225-252.

Somerville, R. C. J., 2011: Computing the climate and more. Science, 331, 149-150.

Allison, I., N. L. Bindoff, R.A. Bindschadler, P.M. Cox, N. de Noblet, M.H. England, J.E. Francis, N. Gruber, A.M. Haywood, D.J. Karoly, G. Kaser, C. Le Quéré, T.M. Lenton, M.E. Mann, B.I. McNeil, A.J. Pitman, S. Rahmstorf, E. Rignot, H.J. Schellnhuber, S.H. Schneider, S.C. Sherwood, R.C.J. Somerville, K.Steffen, E.J. Steig, M. Visbeck, A.J. Weaver, 2011: The Copenhagen Diagnosis: Updating the world on the Latest Climate Science. Elsevier, Burlington, MA, USA and San Diego, CA, USA and Oxford, United Kingdom.

Somerville, R. C. J., 2010: The ethics of geoengineering: What is humanity’s backup plan if climate change mitigation fails? Lahey Clinic Journal of Medical Ethics, 17, 3, 6-8.

Bowman, T. E., E. Maibach, M. E. Mann, R. C. J. Somerville, B. J. Seltzer, B. Fischhoff, S. M. Gardiner, R. J. Gould, A. Leiserowitz, and G. Yohe, 2010: Time to take action on climate communication. Science, 330, 1044.

Pritchard, M. S., and R. C. J. Somerville, 2009: Assessing the diurnal cycle of precipitation in a multi-scale climate model. Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems, 1, Art. # 12, 16pp., doi:10.3894/JAMES.2009.1.12.

Pritchard, M. S., and R. C. J. Somerville, 2009: Empirical orthogonal function analysis of the diurnal cycle of precipitation in a multi-scale climate model. Geophysical Research Letters, 36, L05812, doi:10.1029/2008GL036964.

Allison, I., N. L. Bindoff, R.A. Bindschadler, P.M. Cox, N. de Noblet, M.H. England, J.E. Francis, N. Gruber, A.M. Haywood, D.J. Karoly, G. Kaser, C. Le Quéré, T.M. Lenton, M.E. Mann, B.I. McNeil, A.J. Pitman, S. Rahmstorf, E. Rignot, H.J. Schellnhuber, S.H. Schneider, S.C. Sherwood, R.C.J. Somerville, K.Steffen, E.J. Steig, M. Visbeck, and A.J. Weaver, 2009: The Copenhagen Diagnosis: Updating the world on the Latest Climate Science. The University of New South Wales Climate Change Research Centre, Sydney, Australia, 60pp. Link to publication

Bowman, T. E., E. Maibach, M. E. Mann, S. C. Moser, and R. C. J. Somerville, 2009: Creating a common climate language. Science, 324, 36-37.

Somerville, R. C. J., 2008: The Forgiving Air: Understanding Environmental Change. Second edition. American Meteorological Society, Boston, MA. 224 pp.

Somerville, R. C. J., and J. Jouzel, 2008: The global consensus and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Facing Climate Change Together, Cambridge University Press, C. Gautier and J.-L. Fellous (eds.), pp. 12-29.

Shell, K. M., and R. C. J. Somerville, 2007: Direct radiative effect of mineral dust and volcanic aerosols in a simple aerosol climate model. Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, D03205, doi:10.1029/2006JD007197.

Shell, K. M., and R. C. J. Somerville, 2007: Sensitivity of climate forcing and response to dust optical properties in an idealized model, Journal of Geophysical Research, 112, D03206, doi:10.1029/2006JD007198.

Rahmstorf, S., A. Cazenave, J. A. Church, J. E. Hansen, R. F. Keeling, D. E. Parker, R. C. J. Somerville, 2007: Recent climate observations compared to projections. Science, 316, 709 (2007); published online 1 February 2007 (10.1126/science. 1136843).

Le Treut, H., R. Somerville, U. Cubasch, Y. Ding, C. Mauritzen, A. Mokssit, T. Peterson, and M. Prather, 2007: Historical Overview of Climate Change. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H. L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, R. B. Alley, T. Berntsen, N. L., Bindoff, Z. Chen, A. Chidthaisong, J. M. Gregory, G. C. Hegeri, M. Heimann, B. Hewitson, B. J. Hoskins, F. Joos, J. Jouzel, V. Kattsov, U. Lohmann, T. Matsuno, M. Molina, N. Nicholls, J. Overpeck, G. Raga, V. Ramaswamy, J. Ren, M. Rusticucci, R. Somerville, T. F. Stocker, P. Whetton, R. A. Wood and D. Wratt, 2007: Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group[ I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H. L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

IPCC, 2007: Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K. B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H. L. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Jouzel, J., et R. C. J. Somerville, 2007: Le groupe intergouvernemental d’experts sur l’evolution du climat: le consensus a l’échelle planétaire. Comprendre le Changement Climatique, Odile Jacob (Paris), J.-L. Fellous et C. Gautier (eds.), pp. 27-44.

Iacobellis, S. F., and Richard C. J. Somerville, 2006: Evaluating parameterizations of the autoconversion process using a single-column model and ARM measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111, D02203, doi:10.1029/2005JD006296.

Xie, S., M. Zhang, M. Branson, R. T. Cederwall, A. D. Del Genio, Z. A. Eitzen, S. J. Ghan, S. F. Iacobellis, K. J. Johnson, M. Khairoutdinov, S. A. Klein, S. K. Krueger, W. Lin, U. Lohmann, M. A. Miller, D. A. Randall, R. C. J. Somerville, Y. C. Sud, G. K. Walker, A. Wolf, X. Wu, K.-M. Xu, J. J. Yio, G. Zhang, and J. Zhang, 2005: Simulations of midlatitude frontal clouds by SCMs and CRMs during the ARM March 2000 Cloud IOP. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, D15S03, doi:10.1029/2004JD005119, 2005.

Xu, K.-M., M. Zhang, Z. A. Eitzen, S. J. Ghan, S. A. Klein, X. Wu, M. Branson, A. D. DelGenio, S. F. Iacobellis, M. Khairoutdinov, W. Lin, U. Lohmann, D. A. Randall, R. C. J. Somerville, Y. C. Sud, G. K. Walker, A. Wolf, S. Xie, J. J. Yio, and J. Zhang, 2005: Modeling springtime shallow frontal clouds with cloud-resolving and single-column models. Journal of Geophysical Research, 110, D15S04, doi:10.1029/2004JD005153.

Berque, J., D. Lubin, and R. C. J. Somerville, 2004: Infrared radiative properties of the Antarctic Plateau from AVHRR Data. Part I: Effect of the snow surface. Journal of Applied Meteorology, 43, pp. 350-362.

Lane-Veron, D. E., and R. C. J. Somerville, 2004: Stochastic theory of radiative transfer through generalized cloud fields. Journal of Geophysical Research, 109, D18113, doi:10.1029/2004JD004524, pp. 1-14, 2004.

Shell, K. M., and R. C. J. Somerville, 2004: A generalized energy balance climate model with parameterized dynamics and diabatic heating. Journal of Climate, 18, pp. 1753-1772, doi: 10.1175/JCLI3373.1.

McFarquhar, G. M., S. Iacobellis, and R. C. J. Somerville, 2003: SCM simulations of tropical ice clouds using observationally based parameterizations of microphysics. Journal of Climate, 16, pp. 1643-1664.

Iacobellis, S. F., G. M. McFarquhar, D. L. Mitchell, and R. C. J. Somerville, 2003: The sensitivity of radiative fluxes to parameterized cloud microphysics. Journal of Climate, 16, pp. 2979-2996.

Shell, K., R. Frouin, S. Nakamoto, and R. Somerville, 2003: Atmospheric response to solar radiation absorbed by phytoplankton. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108, (D15), 4445, doi:10.1029/2003JD003440, 2003.

Xie, S., K-M. Xu, R. T. Cederwall, P. Bechtold, A. D. Del Genio, S. A. Klein, D. G. Cripe, S. J. Ghan, D. Gregory, S. F. Iacobellis, S. K. Krueger, U. Lohmann, J. C. Petch, D. A. Randall, L. D. Rotstayn, R. C. J. Somerville, Y. C. Sud, K. von Salzen, G. K. Walker, A. Wolf, J. J. Yio, G-J. Zhang, M. Zhang, 2002: Intercomparison and evaluation of cumulus parameterizations under summertime midlatitude continental conditions. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 128, pp. 1095-1136.

Lane, D. E., K. Goris, and R. C. J. Somerville, 2002: Radiative transfer through broken clouds: Observations and model validation. Journal of Climate, 15, pp. 2921-2933.

Lane, D. E., R. C. J. Somerville, and S. F. Iacobellis, 2001: Evaluation of a stochastic radiative transfer model using ground-based measurements. In IRS 2000: Current Problems in Atmospheric Radiation, W. L. Smith and Yu. M. Timofeyev (Eds.) A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton, Virginia, pp. 245-248.

Iacobellis, S. F., R. C. J. Somerville, and D. E. Lane, 2001: SCM sensitivity to microphysics, radiation and convection algorithms. In IRS 2000: Current Problems in Atmospheric Radiation, W. L. Smith and Yu. M. Timofeyev (Eds.) A. Deepak Publishing, Hampton, Virginia, pp. 1287-1290.

Lane, D. E., R. C. J. Somerville, and S. F. Iacobellis, 2000: Sensitivity of cloud and radiation parameterizations to changes in vertical resolution. Journal of Climate, 13, 915-922.

Iacobellis, S. F., and R. C. J. Somerville, 2000: Implications of microphysics for cloud-radiation parameterizations: Lessons from TOGA-COARE. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 57, 161-183.

Somerville, R. C. J., 2000: Using single-column models to improve cloud-radiation parameterizations. General Circulation Model Development: Past, Present and Future, Academic Press, D. Randall (ed.), pp. 641-657.

Ghan, S. J., D. Randall, K. Xu, R. Cederwall, D. Cripe, J. Hack, S. Iacobellis, S. Klein, S. Krueger, U. Lohmann, J. Pedretti, A. Robock, L. Rotstayn, R. Somerville, G. Strenchikov, Y. Sud, G. Walker, S. Xie, J. Yio, and M. Zhang, 2000: A comparison of single-column model simulations of Summertime midlatitude continental convection. Journal of Geophysical Research, D. (Atmospheres), 105 (D2), 2091-2124.

Iacobellis, S. F., R. Frouin, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1999: Direct climate forcing by biomass burning aerosols: Impact of correlations between controlling variables. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104, 12,031-12,045.

Somerville, R. C. J., and S. F. Iacobellis, 1999: Single-column models, ARM observations, and GCM cloud-radiation schemes. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (B), 24, 733-740.

Lubin, D., B Chen, D. H. Bromwich, R. C. J. Somerville, W.-H. Lee, and K. M. Hines, 1998: The impact of Antarctic cloud radiative properties on a GCM climate simulation. Journal of Climate, 11, 447-462.

Lee, W.-H., S. F. Iacobellis, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1997: Cloud-radiation forcings and feedbacks: General circulation model tests and observational validation. Journal of Climate, 10, 2479-2496.

Soloviev, G. I., V. D. Shapiro, R. C. J. Somerville and B. Shkoller, 1996: The tilting instability in a two-dimensional viscous fluid. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 53, 2671-2684.

Lee, W.-H., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1996: Effects of alternative cloud radiation parameterizations in a general circulation model. Annalae Geophysicae, 14, 107-114.

Byrne, R. N., R. C. J. Somerville and B. Subasilar, 1996: Broken-cloud enhancement of solar radiation absorption. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 53, 878-886.

Somerville, R. C. J., S. F. Iacobellis and W.-H. Lee, 1996: Effects of cloud-radiation schemes on climate model results. World Resource Review, 8, 321-333.

Randall, D. A., K.-M. Xu, R. C. J. Somerville and S. Iacobellis, 1996: Single-column models and cloud ensemble models as links between observations and climate models. Journal of Climate, 9, 1683-1697.

Razafimpanilo, H., R. Frouin, S. F. Iacobellis, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1995: Methodology for estimating burned area from AVHRR reflectance data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 54, 273-289.

Iacobellis, S. F., R. Frouin, H. Razafimpanilo and R. C. J. Somerville, 1994: North African savanna fires and atmospheric carbon dioxide. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99, D4, 8321-8334.

Waliser, D. E., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1994: The preferred latitudes of the intertropical convergence zone. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 51, 1619-1639.

Malvagi, F., R. N. Byrne, G. C. Pomraning, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1993: Stochastic radiative transfer in a partially cloudy atmosphere. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 50, 2146-2158.

Chertock, B., R. Frouin and R. C. J. Somerville, 1991: Global monitoring of net solar irradiance at the ocean surface: Climatological variability and the 1982/1983 El Nino. Journal of Climate, 4, 639-650.

Iacobellis, S., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1991: Diagnostic modeling of the Indian monsoon onset. Part I: Model description and validation. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 48, 1948-1959.

Iacobellis, S., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1991: Diagnostic modeling of the Indian monsoon onset. Part II: Budget and sensitivity studies. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 48, 1960-1971.

Isakari, S. M., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1989: Accurate numerical solutions for Daisyworld. Tellus, 41B, 478-482.

Hathaway, D. H., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1987: Thermal convection in a rotating shear flow. Geophysical and Astrophysical Fluid Dynamics, 38, 43-68.

Somerville, R. C. J., and S. Iacobellis, 1987: Cloud-radiation interactions: Effects of cirrus optical thickness feedbacks. Short- and Medium-Range Numerical Weather Prediction, T. Matsuno (ed.), Meteorological Society of Japan, 177-185. Chertock, B., S. Iacobellis, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1987: Remote sensing studies of oceanic cloud-radiation feedbacks. Atmospheric Radiation Progress And Prospects, K.-N. Liou and Z. Xiuji (eds.), Science Press and American Meteorological Society, 508-514.

Somerville, R. C. J., 1987: The predictability of weather and climate. Climatic Change, 11, 239-246.

Hathaway, D. H., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1986: Nonlinear interactions between convection, rotation and flows with vertical shear. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 164, 91-105.

Hathaway, D. H., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1985: Numerical simulation in three space dimensions of time-dependent thermal convection in a rotating fluid. Lectures in Applied Mathematics, 22, 309-319.

Engquist, B. E., S. Osher, and R. C. J. Somerville (eds.), 1985: Large-Scale Computations in Fluid Mechanics, Lectures in Applied Mathematics, Vol. 22, American Mathematical Society, Providence, Rhode Island, 2 volumes, 779 pp.

Roads, J. O., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1984: Linear predictability: Effects of stationary forcing. Predictability of Fluid Motions, G. Holloway and B. J. West (eds.), American Institute of Physics, 106, New York, 557-570.

Somerville, R. C. J., and L. A. Remer, 1984: Cloud optical thickness feedbacks in the CO2 climate problem. Journal of Geophysical Research, 89, 9668-9672.

Hathaway, D. H., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1983: Three-dimensional simulations of convection in layers with tilted rotation vectors. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 126, 75-89.

Barnett, T. P., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1983: Advances in short term climate prediction. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 21, 1096-1102.

Roads, J. O., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1982: Predictability of ultralong waves in global and hemispheric quasi-geostrophic barotropic models. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 39, 745-755.

Somerville, R. C. J., 1980: Tropical influences on the predictability of ultralong waves. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 37, 1141-1156.

Somerville, R. C. J., and T. Gal-Chen, 1979: Numerical simulation of convection with mean vertical motion. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 36, 805-815.

Gall, R. L., R. Blakeslee, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1979: Baroclinic instability and the selection of the zonal scale of the transient eddies of middle latitudes. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 36, 767-784. Gall, R. L., R. Blakeslee, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1979: Cyclone-scale forcing of ultralong waves. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 36, 1692-1698.

Dobosy, R. J., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1979: Tests of simple momentum boundary-layer parameterizations in a numerical weather prediction model. Contributions to Atmospheric Physics, 52, 190-203.

Baker, W. E., E. C. Kung, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1978: An energetics analysis of forecast experiments with the NCAR general circulation model. Monthly Weather Review, 106, 311-323.

Baker, W. E., E. C. Kung, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1977: Energetics diagnosis of the NCAR general circulation model. Monthly Weather Review, 105, 1384-1401.

Somerville, R. C. J., 1977: Pattern recognition techniques for weather forecast verification. Contributions to Atmospheric Physics, 50, 403-410.

Somerville, R. C. J., W. J. Quirk, J. E. Hansen, A. A. Lacis, and P. H. Stone, 1976: A search for short-term meteorological effects of solar variability in an atmospheric circulation model. Journal of Geophysical Research, 81, 1572-1576.

Gal-Chen T., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1975: On the use of a coordinate transformation for the solution of the Navier-Stokes equations. Journal of Computational Physics, 17, 209-228.

Gal-Chen, T., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1975: Numerical solution of the Navier-Stokes equations with topography. Journal of Computational Physics, 17, 276-310.

Druyan, L. M., R. C. J. Somerville, and W. J. Quirk, 1975: Extended-range forecasts with the GISS model of the global atmosphere. Monthly Weather Review, 103, 779-795.

Somerville, R. C. J., P. H. Stone, M. Halem, J. E. Hansen, J. S. Hogan, L. M. Druyan, G. Russell, A. A. Lacis, W. J. Quirk, and J. Tenenbaum, 1974: The GISS model of the global atmosphere. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 31, 84-117.

Stone, P. H., W. J. Quirk, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1974: The effect of small-scale vertical mixing of horizontal momentum in a general circulation model. Monthly Weather Review, 102, 765-771.

Somerville, R. C. J., and F. B. Lipps, 1973: A numerical study in three space dimensions of Bénard convection in a rotating fluid. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 30, 590-596.

Willis, G. E., J. W. Deardorff, and R. C. J. Somerville, 1972: Roll-diameter dependence in Rayleigh convection and its effect upon the heat flux. Journal of Fluid Mechanics, 54, 351-367.

Somerville, R. C. J., 1971: Bénard convection in a rotating fluid. Geophysical Fluid Dynamics, 2, 247-262.

Lipps, F. B., and R. C. J. Somerville, 1971: Dynamics of variable wavelength in finite-amplitude BBenard convection. Physics of Fluids, 14, 759-765.

Somerville, R. C. J., 1967: A nonlinear spectral model of convection in a fluid unevenly heated from below. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences, 24, 665-676.